[This paper was first presented at the annual interfaith dialogue meeting of the Anglican communion and the Permanent Committee of the Azhar al-Sharif for Dialogue with the Monotheistic Religions, meeting at Trinity College, Dublin, on September 15, 2005. It is partly based on AWR's draft report on Religious Freedom in Egypt that Bishop Munīr, bishop of the Episcopal/Anglican Church in Egypt and North Africa with the Horn of Africa found very helpful in preparing his text. Bishop Munīr presented this text for publication in Arab-West Report following the letter of critique of Metropolitan Seraphim of Glastonbury on Bishop Munīr for statements he had allegedly made during this dialogue meeting. This paper places the statement of Bishop Munīr that Metropolitan Seraphim refers to in context]
Introduction
This subject of Christian minorities in the Islamic world has many dimensions to it and I do not claim that I am aware of all them. My Egyptian experience cannot be applied to the entire Islamic world, and my knowledge of North Africa is limited, in spite of my pastoral visits to our churches there. However, I hope to throw enough light on this subject to stimulate more thinking and discussion. As we study this subject I must highlight some important points for our consideration.
1) The expression "minority" is not accepted by many Christians and Muslims in Egypt. This is to emphasise that Egyptians are all equal in rights and duties as citizens, or at least this is the situation that should apply. The use of the word minority here refers to the numerical minority, as there is no doubt that Christians in the Islamic world are a minority in comparison to the numbers of Muslims.
2) The behaviour of peoples and tribes in the past is very different from that of our own time. History tells us the stories of many wars between countries and kingdoms of Europe, but now we talk about the European Union. If the past included bloody wars in the Islamic world between Muslims and other religions, it would be wrong to let these wars throw a shadow on our thinking or to make a link between Islam and violence, especially given the idea that non-Muslims were responsible for some of these wars, as in the case of the Crusades.
3) The practice of political and religious freedom has increased and developed in a noticeable way in the Islamic world. This happened as a result of democratic reform that has happened in some Islamic countries. In fact, no one would imagine 20 years ago that an opposition newspaper would criticise government policies. Some of these are Christian newspapers. This applies also to freedom of expression. It does not mean that democracy is fully achieved, but it is advancing day by day. This gives me hope and throws a light on another brighter side of the coin which is rarely seen by people in the West.
4) There are two sides to every story of conflicts that happen between Muslims and Christians. This makes it necessary to understand both sides of each incident before we reach a judgement or conclusion about the reality. We also should not exclude such incidents from the social and cultural context. If we learn about the reactions of a Muslim family when one of its members converts to another religion, we need also to understand the reactions of Christian families if the same thing happens one of its members.
To understand better the subject we are dealing with, we need to look at the history of Christians during the Islamic conquest and the following Centuries before we start studying the present.
The Islamic Conquest and the Christian Copts.
In the 7th century Egypt was a Byzantine colony. The Coptic Church was settled with its churches, bishops, monks and monasteries. However, the Copts (the Egyptians) suffered because of excessive taxes and the tension between the Coptic and Byzantine churches. This was the result of the disagreement that came to a head at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD in regard to the nature of Christ.
It was in the shadow of these circumstances that the Islamic Conquest came under the leadership of Amr Ibn el Ass in 639 AD. The Islamic army surrounded the Babylon fortress which was the residence of the governor of Egypt, Al Mokawkas (Cyrus in Greek) until they defeated the Byzantine forces. They then went on to Alexandria and captured it and by 641AD Egypt was under the complete control of the Islamic army.
Historians differ in describing the position of the Copts in relation to the Muslim army. Some say they actively stood by the Muslims and others say that they did not support the Byzantines in their battle of resistance to the conquest. However, the certain thing is the Copts expected that this Arab conquest would set them free from Byzantine oppression.
Later on the leaders of the Islamic conquest gave the Copts the following options.
1) To convert to Islam and receive all the benefits and rights of Muslims
2) To pay the Jizya (poll tax) in return for protection and defence by the Muslim army, as they were not allowed to join the army.
3) To fight, if they did not accept the first two options.
As a result, many Christians converted to Islam to avoid paying the Jizya. Others held fast to their beliefs. The approach of each Muslim governor towards Egyptian Christians was different from the last. Some recognised their contribution, and gave them high positions in the government. They also allowed the building of churches. Other governors persecuted them and demolished their churches or converted them into mosques, as happened in the 11th century at the time of al-Hākim bi Amr Allāh. No doubt the Crusades influenced such a reaction.
At the beginning of the 19th century the circumstances of Egyptian Christians improved, especially when Mohammed Ali became governor of Egypt. The Jizya was lifted and Christians and Muslims paid equal taxes. It is worth mentioning here that in 1839, Mohammed Ali gave a piece of land in Alexandria upon which was built the first Episcopal Anglican church in Egypt.
In 1856 the Ottoman Sultan made a decree known as Hamayoni Line. This decree was to regulate the repair and building of churches for all Christian denominations in all parts of the Ottoman Empire. It also regulated the relations between the government and non-Muslim communities. According to this decree no church could be built before gaining permission from the Ottoman sultan himself.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Christians played prominent roles in the political and social life of Egypt. Some of them became ministers and prime ministers. In the 1919 revolution, Christians and Muslims stood together against British occupation. The success of this revolution helped to deepen the spirit of national unity.
In 1934 al-Azabī Pasha made a regulation of 10 conditions for building churches. These were not very different from the Hamayoni Line. The King himself had to give permission to build a church. It is worth mentioning that these 10 conditions still apply today.
Christian Minorities at the present time
The statistics of 2004 show that the population of Egypt is 76 million, 93 percent are Sunni Muslim, and 6 percent are Christians (mainly Coptic Orthodox), 1 percent or less are others. Most Christians live in Upper Egypt and Cairo. Christians and Muslims share, to a great extent, Egyptian social culture, like feasts which have been held since the time of the ancient Egyptians. If we put aside the individual violent incidents that happen from time to time, I can easily say that Egyptian society is more homogenous than many other societies in the world.
The Egyptian Law and Religious Freedom
The second article of the Egyptian constitution state that the principles of Islamic Sharī‘a are the main source of legislation, and this means that all Egyptian laws should not contradict the Sharī‘a. Article number 40 of the constitution states that all citizens are equal in the eyes of the law and they are equal in rights and duties. There is no difference between them on the basis of sex, origin, language, religion or belief. This article speaks about 'the citizen' without any discrimination.
The civil law in its articles number 98, 160 and 161 protects recognised religions and prohibits any attempts to disrupt national unity or desecrate place of worship or the alteration of the Holy Books etc.
It is worth mentioning also that Egypt signed the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Article 18 of this declaration affirms freedom of thought and religion.
The Gap between Law and its Application
While Egyptian law provides sure protection for human rights and freedom of religion, it has loopholes that make the task of defending these rights and freedoms difficult and sometimes impossible. This could be clarified by the following.
a) Freedom of Building Churches
The 10 conditions for building churches that was made by al-Azabī Pasha in 1934 are still in effect today. They were not altered to be in accordance with the Egyptian Constitution (1980) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that was signed by Egypt (1948). This pushed Christians to use illegal ways to build halls and houses for worship with the hope that these could become churches in the future. This creates tension between security and churches and also results in conflicts that threaten national unity. Many of these conflicts have two sides to them, interpreted in different ways. One way is known to church circles and the army, Egyptian immigrants in the West and human rights organisations. The other side of the story is known to Security police and officials
b) The Freedom to Convert
While the Egyptian Christian has unhindered rights to convert to Islam according to the constitution and the Declaration of Human Rights, there are many of restraints for any Muslim who would like to convert to any different religion. The Supreme Court made a judgment on the April 8, 1980 that make the application of Islamic Sharī‘a a necessity in cases of such conversion. Moreover, when a Muslim converts, he or she becomes an apostate and the apostate, according to Sharīca, has no civil rights.
In view of this the apostate loses his right of guardianship of his own children and if he is married, the court could issue a judgment of divorce for his wife, even if this is against her will. The parallel situation applies to women.
Another restraint upon the convert from Islam is the inability to change their religion and name on their identity cards. (Such a change is so easy for people converting to Islam). The unaltered identity card leads to many difficult social consequences. It is worth mentioning that there are two opinions among Muslim scholars in regard to apostates. The first is that they will face judgement at the God's day of judgment. The other considers them blasphemous; they are to be killed if they do not repent. I should mention here that in spite of this, Egyptian courts have never applied the death penalty to an apostate, but even so, many who have converted from Islam have to leave the country because of the difficult social circumstances they face.
The freedom of a Non-Muslim to marry a Muslim
The Islamic Sharī‘a allows a Muslim man to marry a non-Muslim, but the converse is not allowed. The reason given by Muslim scholars for this former concession is that Islam recognises the other monotheistic religions. In line with this, Islamic teaching makes it an obligation for a Muslim husband to guarantee the free worship of his non-Muslim wife. Why though should not a non-Muslim husband guarantee the freedom of worship to his Muslim wife? And what if both husband and wife are atheist? We understand and appreciate that in Islam there is no pressure on anyone to change his religion ("la ikrah fi al-dīn")
The Freedom of Publishing, Expression and Media
During the last two decades Egypt has experienced unprecedented freedom of publishing and expression. There are no more restrictions on publishing and this includes the publishing of Christian books and literature. Christian publishers are welcome to participate in the Cairo International Book Fair. The weekly Christian newspaper Watanī has resumed publishing after being banned in the last few years of Sadat's reign. This newspaper expresses with boldness the point of view of Egyptian Christians. This helps the authorities to see clearly the whole picture.
In the last few years, Egyptian television has begun broadcasting church services every Sunday, in addition broadcasting Christmas and Easter Services of the different denominations. As an Egyptian I am very proud of all that has happened in this area.
Christian minorities and the Egyptian economy
Many Christian investors avoided investing their money in Egypt. They feared the nationalisations and confiscations that happened after the revolution of July 1952. They preferred to invest overseas. With the cancellation of nationalisations and confiscations and the return of properties to their owners, Christian investors started to invest in Egypt. Now they participate in an effective and positive way in the development of the Egyptian economy.
Extreme Islamic Ideologies and Christian Minorities
In recent times, extreme Islamic ideologies have emerged in the Islamic world. These ideologies are founded on false interpretations and Fatwas that contradict the spirit and tolerance of Islam. The leaders of these extremist movements have been able to attract young people. These old men have taken advantage of the superficial knowledge young people may have of their religion and the emptiness of thought in which some live. The social and economic circumstances in the Islamic countries, as well as the international conflicts that are not resolved by the world powers, also have negative effects. Examples of such conflicts are the Arab/Israeli conflict, Chechnya and the inexplicable war in Iraq. There is no doubt that extreme ideologies have been behind many of the terrorist attacks that have taken place recently.
It is worth mentioning that some of these extremists do not recognise Muslim scholars and thinkers to be true Muslims. Examples of those scholars include Dr Faraj Fouda, who was assassinated in 1992, the Nobel Prize Winner, Najīb Mahfouz, who suffered an attempt on his life, and Dr Nasr Abu Zayd who was charged as an apostate. As a result he had to flee to Holland with his wife.
These extremist movements have an impact on the Christian minorities in Egypt and other Arab countries. They put Christians on the same level as Kuffār (the godless). They also call them "Dhimmis"(non-Muslims) and stir up the feeling of hatred against them. It is known that the classical interpretation of the Sharī‘a deprive the "Dhimmis" of equal rights with Muslims. Many of the individual incidents against Christians are planned and executed by these terrorists who burnt some churches and raided their shops. Some of them used their authority to hinder Christians from obtaining their rights. I must affirm here that these are individual incidents that are condemned by the majority of Muslims. It is not a government policy, in fact Muslims who denounce such crimes stood by the Christians when they make their complaints or seek the fair justice of Egypt.
The Impact of Western Policies on Christian Minorities in the Islamic world
Many people in the Islamic world believe that the West is Christian. They do not understand that in the majority of Western countries religion is separate from the state and Western countries are now secular. These countries are motivated by their political and economic interests. This common misunderstanding leads to an mistaken identification of the policies of the Western countries and the practice of the Christian faith. An example of this is the decision of the United States of America to go to war against Iraq. This decision was understood to be a "crusade against Islam". This wrong understanding led to the attacks against churches and Christian institutions in Pakistan. I remember an Egyptian Christian saying to me when the war started that Muslim colleagues look at him now as a representative of George Bush. This encouraged me to write an article in the daily newspaper to explain the position of the church about the Iraq war, which we consider it an illegal war but not a crusade. I should say that I have never met an Egyptian Christian who supports the war in Iraq. In spite of this, sometimes Egyptian Christians are supportive of the policies of Western countries. This may have led to the idea that this war is in fact a Christian conspiracy against Islam. This thought is not prevalent among Muslim leaders, but is more common at the grass roots level. It requires great efforts from both the church and the Azhar al-Sharīf.
Challenges and Hopes for the Future
In view of what has been mentioned, the challenges that face Egyptian society in particular and the Islamic world in general can be summarized as follows.
1) The continuation in the way of democracy and respect for human rights
2) The preparation of new generations who are educated and trained in the culture of dialogue and respect for the other.
3) The combating of extremism, violence and terrorism
Recommendations
To complete the democratic reforms that have already been started and to guarantee sustainability, the desire to do these reforms should come from within. We should also have the courage to face all the weaknesses and gaps that hinder our progress. The following are some of the recommendations which I hope will help us to achieve the goals that are mentioned above.
First reviewing and rewriting the constitution in a way that makes equality between citizens very clear and helps legislators to write laws that have no loopholes. There is also a need to make a one clear authorised interpretation of the articles of the Islamic Sharīca, especially in regard to the issues raised in this paper.
Second, reviewing laws so they do not contradict the constitution and international agreements which Egypt has signed, especially in regard to human rights and freedom of religion .e.g. building churches.
Third, giving special attention to developing school curricula and methods of teaching to produce generations that search for knowledge and also develop the culture of dialogue and acceptance of the other. Subjects that create prejudice against minorities and their history should be avoided.
Fourth, to combat terrorism it is necessary to encourage the following
1) Reinforcement of the role played by the Azhar al-Sharīf thus increasing further its position of influence. This will help young people to learn the right teaching of Islam. This requirement also applies to the church and its institutions which similarly need to apply positive influence.
2) Violence and terrorism are linked to ignorance and poverty, so education and development are necessary to combat them.
3) Joint projects in the area of development. This is what we call practical dialogue. Such projects will have an impact on the Christian/Muslim relations and will achieve coherence in society.
References
" Copts, the beginnings and the struggle. Malāk Louqā
" Draft report on Religious Freedom in Egypt (Arab West Report - March 2004 Cornelis Hulsman)
" The problem of Copts in Egypt (Nabīl Louqā Bibāwī)
" The history of the church in Africa (Sundklr and Steed, Cambridge)
" The spread of Islam with the edge of this world between truth and lies (Nabīl Louqā Bibāwī)
" Religious Freedom in Islam (‘Abd al-Mutaal al-Sa‘īdī)
